Which theorist critiqued Kohlberg for not including women's experiences and argued that women focus on relationships and feelings rather than justice?

• A. Carol Gilligan
• B. Lawrence Kohlberg
• C. Jean Piaget
• D. Erik Erikson

Answer: (A)

Carol Gilligan challenged Kohlberg by pointing out that his moral development theory centers on justice and abstract rules, a perspective rooted in male-typical samples. She proposed an ethics of care, showing that women often reason about morality through relationships, responsibility, and empathy rather than universal principles alone. This care-focused orientation explains why moral decisions for many women emphasize the impact on others and connection, complementing but distinct from Kohlberg’s justice-oriented stages. In nursing, this emphasis on relational ethics and patient advocacy fits well with how care is practiced and evaluated. The other figures—Kohlberg, Piaget, and Erikson—did not issue this critique about gendered moral reasoning, as Kohlberg authored the stage theory himself, Piaget studied cognitive development, and Erikson examined psychosocial development.